Civilization : The Touareg

“Better walking without knowing where,than sitting doing nothing,” Touareg Proverb

Different theories have been put forward to dealing with the mysterious origin of these legendary people. Some believe that they are most likely the descendants of ancient Berber (from the Greek word “Barbaros”, meaning “Barbarian”) named after “Numidians” by the Latin later on. As for them, these so-called legendary people of Northern Africa stemmed from the Berber family group, the same Berber who used to inhabit the banks and the surrounding areas of the Sahara desert. According to some theories, it is believed that these people’s ancestors were the so-called Paleo -Berber
who evolved and gave birth to the Proto-Berber of the protohistory. Others believe that they-these so-called legendary people- have such particular characteristics, whether linguistic or social-cultural, that it is unlikely they belong to the line of the Berber. No matter their origin, these so-called legendary people have ever amazed those who approached them -explorers, scientists, or simple adventurers. The people to whom we are referred are the Touareg , people whose lifestyle, lore, culture still appeal to our imagination, sounding as a pure wonder.
Who are they? Which society are they living in? What are their traditions? In short, what is in fact the nature of their civilization?

There is a great deal of controversy over the etymological meaning of the term “Touareg”; Indeed, experts at Linguistics still appear to hold contentious views about the original sense of the name “Touareg”. Whereas some adepts etymologically consider “Touareg” as simply a Berber name, other adepts at Linguistics, in fact, reckon that the name “Touareg” is most unlikely from the Berber. By doing so, they radically challenge the earlier or previous viewpoint. As for these Linguists, it is rather most likely “Twarig”, known as a broken plural of Targi-an Arabic word the former meaning of which was “Inhabitants of Targa”. Meaning “drainage channel” in Berber, “Targa” is also pointed out as the Libyan region usually known as Fezzan by the Touareg.
Notwithstanding, most Linguists tend to recognize “Touareg” as stemming from an Arabic source. It is not only commonly believed that the word “Touareg” comes from an Arabic origin, but it also seems admitted that the Arabic root for the word “Touareg” should, by translation, be referred to as “Tawariq” as well.
Even though the etymological origin of the term “Touareg” might be arguable according to the Linguistic viewpoint, it is incontrovertible that the word “Touareg” historically had a socio-geographical meaning. Thanks to historical records, we know that many explorers and visitors and historians, especially since Leo Africanus , used to apply the terminology “Touareg” to some Berber populations located in North Africa. Most of these inquisitive adventurers or seekers came up with an ethnic-based, or, at least, a socio-geographical approach to grasp the ethnicity of the Touareg. Since their perspective denotes such a socio-ethnic analysis, a great many Touaregs tend to be reticent to the ethnic, rather, the Berber affiliations. Instead, they would rather call themselves as “Kel Tamasheq” or “Kel Tamajaq” which literally means “Speakers of Tamasheq”.

Whether historians or ethnologists, numerous are the experts who view Touaregs as a Berber ethnic group (Berbers of Sahara). Being classified as Berber people, this suggests that they look much closer to Northwest African Berbers and West African ones in terms of culture and ethnicity. Whether be it socio-geographical or ethnic-based concepts, it still remains that most definitions- relative to Touaregs- are imbued with ethnic systems, that is, with ethnicity. It seems difficult to clearly define these people without falling into racial or ideological notions. What is more is that it is all the more difficult so as there are more and more people- within Touaregs themselves even within some social scientists- that go against this way of defining the Touareg people. Most ethnologists believe and argue that touaregs are defined by language and culture, not by (simply) ethinicity. This is likely why most Touaregs would prefer to give themselves the name “Speakers of Tamasheq” rather than being confined or assimilated unto the broad large and ethical classification of Berber group. Besides this aspect, different names, denominations, appellations have been attributed to Touaregs including the so-called “Blue Men” and “Free-men”.
The name “Blue-Men” of the Desert seems to have nothing to do with ethnicity or particular membership relation. Instead, the name is used to refer to the habits of the Touareg to wearing blue-like dress code. The most distinguishable feature remains the veil called “Taguelmost” by the Touareg. The veil itself shows an important social gap within community. Depending upon the social status, the color of veil generally differs. Common people get used to wearing blue veils, but only chiefs are allowed to put black, dark -like ones on. So, depending on the color of the veil dyed with indigo or the veil itself, inquisitive foreign visitors got accustomed to referring to them as either the “Blue-Men” or simply the “People of the veil”. In fact, the phrase “People of the veil” was known long time ago. Some ancient books of history, especially during Antiquity, referred to the Touareg as “People of the veil”. Furthermore, there are narrative passages which mention and help show how the Ancient Historian perceived the Touareg: “The nobles of these people wear, as I have said, a black veil on their heads, of which a part is used for covering the face all but for eyes. They never leave it: when they want to eat they have to uncover their months each time they take a bit, and quickly cover them up again” (qtd.the people of the veil, ch.6-Pastoralist Berbers: Nomad, Slaves, and Saints.)
While the name “Blue-men” is now widespread and commonplace, the calling “Free-men” or “Imazaghan” (also “Imashagan” or “Imaghan” in Touareg languages) does not look so well-known, yet found in study books. In fact, the name “Imazaghan” comes from the Touareg themselves, from their own perspective. It symbolizes this so-called ideal of freedoms, specifically freedom of actions, of expressions, of beliefs, and so on. Touaregs have ever claimed such freedoms; these attributes of independence really appear to them as natural or inherent. They always seem and even remain to be proud of.

Aside from these different aspects germane to the Touareg people, it dawned on researchers that the touareg culture is ancient and incredibly rich, though complex, concerning many aspects. The famous Danish anthropologist Johannes Nicolaise acknowledged that he believed to have found among Touaregs a rich old culture living in exemplary harmony with its natural environment fairly uninfluenced by modern European civilization. (qtd. in Touaregs: The Blue People
Touareg society faces traditional social stratification. There is indeed a gradual, social hierarchy within the society. The society itself is essentially composed of an upper class of nobles and a lower class of servants. Otherwise, it deals with nobility and vassals.
As a matter of fact, the societal system looks like a feudal one, consisting of a small number of nobles (Aristocrats), a considerable majority of vassals, and a lower class of black non-Touareg serfs who are in charge of agricultural tasks.
According to different social classes, we can distinguish the imusa (warrior-Aristocrats), imrad (vassal-Herdmen), and the inhaden (toolmaking Men).
When time went by, the society evolved. On one hand, another class of slaves called “Eklan” came out in favor of different wars. Many “eklan” were originally “slaves”, either captured during warfare or “bargained”, rather, bought at Asian slave markets. The “ekhlan” or “ikhlan”- brown-skinned people- are likely supposed to be from the descent of ancient slaves known as Bela. On the other hand, with the coming of Islam, a major change in the configuration of the society broke out. In contrast to earlier times, the religious social class called “Ineslemen” occurred and came into being integrated in the society. These Muslim are considered to be the “Holy People” or “Saints”, teaching and preaching Islamic tenets. They are much praised, and they are sometimes venerated. These devout Muslims are not only used to performing religious ceremonials such as communal prayers, but they are also seen as playing a role of “healers” when the populations face misfortune or severe diseases. To resume, the Islamic invasion helped the settling down of these religious Muslims or believers within the community, and Islam made them become an integral part of the Toureg social structure. Besides this, as a complement, it is really interesting to notice another important thing regarding the societal structure. Specialists almost unanimously came to agree upon the tribal nature of the society. One of the most renowned historian, anthropologist, and Linguist Danish Karl-G Prasse, in his famous book Touaregs: The Blue People stated “The Touaregs live in a tribal society.” What does it mean when one says Touaregs live in a tribal society? One might think Touaregs have a deep feeling of membership relations. It is a group of people for whom the affiliations of a given tribe is much-needed. The Touareg people are very often related to each other in terms of tribes. The tribal systems which took place and still remain among different social classes regulate the social hierarchy. However, let us see how Karl Prasse can expound and clarify this idea of tribal systems? Indeed, while referring to the tribal systems or tribal organizations in general, Karl Prass affirmed “In a tribal society, the individual feels that he (or she) is protected by his family and by his tribe and perhaps by a superior confederation of tribes.” Later on, he précised “That is precisely the situation of the Touaregs who all live in states where other ethnic groups are in power” (16).
Similarly, one could interpret the societal organization of the Touaregs in terms of a system of castes. In fact, this idea is quite the same as the idea previously mentioned about the social divisions which basically consists of nobility class, vassal class, and religious one. It is useful to recall and insist on this latter point as K.Prasse witnessed it. Indeed, while describing the systems of castes within the community, Karl Prasse added “It must be noted that Touareg society is based on a system of castes. In addition to noble tribes and vassal tribes, there are religious tribes, artisans, slaves, and peasants” (16).
Another important feature of Touareg society is its matrilineage. It looks like as if matrilineage were inherent to the Touareg society. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language states that matrilineage is a line of descent as traced through women on the maternal side of a family (1080). Many ethnologists are in favor of the matrineal aspect of the Touareg society, but they tend to challenge the matriarchal viewpoint on which some experts have tried to put emphasis. According to the American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, a matriarchate or matriarchy is a social system in which the mother is head of the family. It is also defined as a family, community, or society based on this system or governed by women (1080). Some researchers pointed out that Touareg society is not only matrineal, but it is also matriarchal. As a matter of fact, some controversies began occurring. Whether matrilineal or matriarchal, one point should be paid heed to. Depending on which aspects of the women’s role one puts an emphasis on, one will come up with a specific conclusion. Notwithstanding, some evidences show, by means of deep investigations ,that it is most likely reasonable to say that the society itself should be considered as matrilineal, but not necessarily matriarchal. On the contrary, this should not put or set aside the importance of women’s role in the Touareg society. On one hand, as mentioned earlier, most of the lineage process is set up through women or women’s inheritance. On the other hand, women have always played a key role within the community and the family. Firstly, they look after the education of children. Secondly, they take part in the social activities such as environmental protections, Market management (trade, commerce), farming, and herding. As a matter of fact, they do play a role in economic sectors. Thirdly, they also used and keep using to play a key role in maintaining the traditional values of the society. In most cases, they represent, they incarnate not only the tradition, but they strive for keeping it. This is why one could refer to them as “Guardians of the tradition”.
In addition to the nature of Touareg society, different expressions of culture are witnessed within the community. Touareg art is mainly expressed in terms of jewelry, leather, and metal saddle decorations. There are also traditional handicrafts –clay-baked pottery, metal sword (Takoba), gold and silver-made necklaces and earrings which remain wonder. Another form of expressions of art is through songs, poems, and dances. Music is now basically the most famous mode of expressions; it is traditional, and its main topics deal with dead (martyr) or alive Men, Women, Life, and Nature (Sahara, deserts). One Touareg band (music band) is the sensational group Tinariwen which uses electric guitars and traditional music tools at the same time.
Dance is a commonplace practice in the society. During special pageants or celebrations, one can admire Touaregs’ beautiful dance. As an example, the dance “Zarraf” is a dance performed by Touareg women during wedding. In addition, in one particular dance, each gender stays in a different line, facing the other group or partner. Once the music “goes by”, a rhythmic, cadenced movement of the body “goes” and “goes on” until the two partners or eventually the two genders get closer, and then the dance starts over again.
Language is another factor of cultural expressions. The language spoken by Touaregs is “Tamasheq”. This language is believed to stem from a southern Berber language. As a matter of fact, Tamasheq or Tamajaq are most probably derived from the Berber language spoken by ancient“Numidians” (name given to Berber by the Latin) in pre-roman period. Touaregs also have a system of writing which is considered to come from the original Berber script used by the same Numidians during pre-roman times. This is writing is named after “Tifinagh”.
One major component of a culture is religion. Before Islam was introduced into the society, Touaregs practiced what could be called as “Ante-Islamic paganism”. In other terms or words, one could liken them to pagan or polytheists. They had pre-Islamic animistic beliefs including the worshipping of several gods, of nature, of spirits. They also practiced divination. Moreover, superstitions and magic prevailed.
Islam was introduced into the Touareg lifestyle around the 16th century. It was a sunni form of Islam. Although Islam later became an intregral part of the spiritual and social life or existence of Touaregs, there would be a great deal of non-Islamic beliefs performed by Touaregs. Meanwhile, those beliefs are still in progress in some regions.
For instance, a great many Touaregs still remain superstitious (Perhaps due to a high rate of illiteracy); they often invoke dead Saints in their daily life or prayers as well. Besides, many keep on with divination. Most of them do not get rid of their habits of wearing talismans with Islamic writings. In short, they still practice a passive form of Islam which sometimes goes against the sacred principles of the Muslim Religion. As an illustration, it had been said that once you asked a Touareg why he wore a veil, he would tell you that wearing it helped ward off evils (evil spirits). Taking up to the point, one can notice that a good deal of residual beliefs of earlier times still continue to be incorporated into current socio-religious practices. Some traditional sacrifices to dead forefathers or ancestors are in progress. In her article titled “Alms, Elders, and Ancestors: The spirit of the Gift among Touareg”, Susen.J. Rasmussen, while referring to the practice of alms offerings among Touaregs of Niger affirmed that alms offerings are prominent in ideals and practices surrounding elders, ancestors, and mortuary rituals among the Touareg People of Niger Republic West Africa.

Besides the cultural aspect of the society, the Touareg, like other people, met with other cultures: Cultural encounters. Throughout history, Touaregs encountered other Berber cultures such as North African and Mediterranean ones. Through Ages, Touaregs also had close relationships with people living in the sahelian regions of Africa especially Sudanese regions of western Africa. Many social contacts were favored by economic, religious and political (tribal) reasons or motives. Likewise, owing to different armed conflicts (warfare) to which they faced and owing to the natural nomadism which prevailed, cultural encounters gained in importance.
Nowadays, it is thought that Touaregs managed to meet with their neighboring populations because of the progressive dryness of the Sahara desert essentially. Indeed,
It is believed that when the Sahara dried out about 10,000 years, its surrounding populations faced migrations. As for the Touareg people, it appears that they traveled down from the North Africa in a series of migrations, a progressive and continual migration. Thanks to this perpetual flux of migration, they left behind vivid testimonies of their earlier presence. For instance, when they migrated to the sahelian regions of Mali, they founded the city of Timbuktu in the eleventh century. Timbuktu –the mysterious city-has ever compelled the attention of adventurers, explorers, visitors, and scientists. It was believed that it contained priceless treasures, human, historical, natural, archeological, cultural treasures. Many writers began authoring books about this prestigious city of Timbuktu in the northern Mali. By 1300s, it had become one of Mali major commercial and cultural centers.
In favor of their cultural encounters, an important change relative to the Touareg’s lifestyle took place. Even if there is still controversy over this point, one can not ignore that Touaregs knew how to take advantage of social benefices resulted from their interactions with other Berber. One can easily remark that some foreign cultural habits were integrated into the Touaregs’ mode of life. For instance, certain traditional meals, clothing, or even beliefs believed inherent to Touaregs turned out to be from ancient Berber people previously established in the sahelian regions. Those cultural borrowings have been mentioned by well-known historians in their works. In his Book, Africa: Its peoples and their culture, history, George Peter Murdock draws our attention to this idea of cultural borrowings when he states“ In the case of the Touaregs and Udalan, the adaptation has involved so many genuine innovations, as well as borrowings from both the indigenous Negroes and the Bedouin Arabs”(115).
Today, most Touaregs become reconverted to agriculture. Most of them are becoming farmers even if there are still a few pastoralists among them. However, the general trend is that they are more and more concerned with farming rather than grazing or herding. Leading such a life implies a sedentary life. In fact, they are largely and increasingly settling down. In other words, their nomadic life is changing in sedentary one. Many of them left their earlier geographical areas; they left those rural areas for urban areas like large cities (Agadez, Timbuktu) much more populated and “urbanized”. Some attentive researchers remarked this progressive sedentary process. Some go further, and they simply aver that touaregs are now sedentary. While reading the following quotation from Going Global: Tuareg Jewelry in the International Market, you will notice some important expressions used so as to qualify the“contemporary” Touareg: “The Touaregs are a loose confederation of groups of pastoral nomads (Indeed, some do exist), settled agriculturists and today, city dwellers, who speak a Berber language known as Tamasheq or Tamacheck” (Thomas K.Seligman). What worries is that this ongoing migration towards urban cities (urbanizing going with modernizing and with sedentary living) might affect Touaregs’ ancient traditions and traditional and nomadic nature.
The social context in which Touareg society actually evolves, especially after the Independence of African countries around 1960s, is worthy of great interests. One of the major problem deals with cultural minority issues. Many suffer from a lack of interest towards them from the new independent states in which they live. They denounce the persistent marginalization that they have been undergoing for awhile. In fact, what is on table is the acknowledgement of their cultural rights, the acknowledgement of their will for founding this so-called “Touareg Nation”. What do we know about this alleged “Nation”? In short, it is likely that there used to be a “Nation” (probably melting pop races), a Touareg “Nation” having peopled the geographical areas stretching from Mediterranean banks to the Sahara deserts, a Nation enriched by its social and artistic and religious and scientific achievements. However, this remains pure hypothesis, if not, pure fantasy. Nevertheless, many Touareg activists still hope and aim at bringing into existence this so-called Touareg “Nation”. In order to claim their self- proclaimed or “legitimate” rights, their different rights, Touaregs’ will took different forms especially through armed conflicts. Their claim gained in importance when they started fighting the established governments following the Independence in 1960s. We bear in mind the tragic civil wars occurred in the regions of Mali in 1990s.
In the early 1990s, guerilla warfare broke out between Mali Government and the belligerent Touaregs who were militarily trained and equipped by the Libyan State further to the catastrophic droughts in 1972 and 1982-1985.
In accordance with their Laws, the concerned States, (Mali, but also Niger) chose to address the rebellion or the “militia” by means of weapons rather than dialogue(s). This resulted in the killing of thousands of civil populations and an exceptional migration of hundreds of thousands of people to Algeria, Mauritania, Niger, Burkina Faso, and Ivory Coast. The counter attack by the Mali and Niger governments was tough. One author, Gabriel Ben Dor, in his book Minorities and the State in the Arab World précised “The larger Touareg communities in Mali and Niger face severe repression from the regimes there (49).
Owing to these civil conflicts, the whole Touareg society became disorganized, so disorganized that intestine wars or conflicts between Touaregs themselves and between Touareg tribes came out. Some Touareg leaders or tribes’ chiefs did not hesitate to accuse the concerned governments to be behind this friction among Touaregs. One important consequence which resulted from this is the establishment of two armed fractions of Touaregs, each having its own leadership and directives.
Thanks to the interference of neighboring States, foreign and diplomatic initiatives, the warfare ended up with the signature of a civil and peaceful pact whose main purposes consisted of giving a larger autonomy to the Touareg, of furthering the socio-economic growth within the community, of promoting educational and health infrastructures.
Nowadays, Touaregs are facing to one of the most environmental crisis that they have never witnessed before. Desert looks ubiquitous. It cannot seemingly stop progressing. This constant progress of the Sahara Desert compels Touaregs to perpetual migrations. All of the surrounding areas become dryer and dryer. The animals such cattle, goats, sheep, and so on are suffering from this situation. There is hardly water nearby the living places. Moreover, a great deal of vegetations disappears. Meanwhile, the absence of pure waters and suitable and healthy environment give raise to current water-related diseases. All of these of factors, either natural, environmental, or human-made , leave no other choice to Touaregs- frequently accompanied by their flocks or cattle- than moving from arid areas to more prosperous and fertile ones. This brings about another drawback dealing with the conflict between farmers and pastoralists this time. The social tension between agriculturists and cattle-herders (especially nomadic populations such as Touaregs) is reaching its height. As a result, many people are reportedly deadly injured. Some States deplore hundreds of victims due to this particular conflict between farmers and pastoralists annually. Actually, the environmental crisis within the Sahel and the banks of the Sahara strengthens social crisis, worsens the relationship between communities, and menace thousands of living species. The Sahelian Social Systems describes the increasing gravity of the situation as follows:
Situations of competition and conflict among individuals and among groups are multiplying. Disorder is introduced into relations between societies and nature. Space is becoming more scarce and climatic conditions are worsening, accentuating and accelerating the transformations that are underway to the point that where the sustainable exploitation of ecosystems is now under threat (Bradley et al.214).

So far, we have seen how complex and rich remains the Touareg’s culture. We have also analyzed the major components of the Touareg’s civilization. Likewise, we have witnessed the dynamism of this particular Berber culture through its historical evolution. However, what is worrying is a progressive loss of certain Touareg traditional values especially during this era of globalization and urbanization. It is imperative to urge the concerned countries to try to preserve and value the priceless symbolism that the Touareg Cultures represent or incarnate. These “people of the veil”, these so-called “Blue-men” ,being settled down between different countries-Mali, Niger, Algeria, Burkina Faso and being estimated between 100,000 and 3.5 millions, do not cease fascinating our imagination and stirring up a good deal of interrogations about our own origin given their ancient history dating back to hundreds of thousands of years.

Works cited
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Bradley Phil,, Dellville Langne Phillipe, Gregoire Emmanuel, Janin Pierre, Koechlin
Jean, and Raynaud Claude. Sahelian Social Systems.London: Routledge,1997.
Gabriel Ben-Dor. Minorities and the State in the Arab World. Boulder, CO:
Lynne Rienner, 1999.
George Peter Murdock. Africa: Its People and their Culture and History. N.Y:
Mc Graw, 1959.
Karl-G Prasse. Touaregs: The Blue-People. Copenhagen : Museum Tusculanuim
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